Mitchell

Blog Assignment #1 – Fenn [Biological Warfare]
1. In “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffrey Amherst,” Elizabeth A. Fenn discusses the possibility of Biological Warfare used in the Late 1700’s in  America. The author begins by describing the well documented record of Gen. Jeff Amherst’s intentional small pox infection of Indians at Fort Pitt in 1763. The author also talks about the very real possibility of biological warfare use in the Seven Years’ War and the Revolutionary War. Fenn believes that historians wrongly dismiss the fact that biological warfare was used following the Fort Pitt incident.

2. The author uses journal entries, documented papers, speeches, and published books as sources for her claim. Fenn uses “William Trent’s Journal at Fort Pitt, 1763” and Papers of Col. Henry Bouquet and Amherst, Official Papers to support her argument against Amherst at Fort Pitt. Fenn uses scientific writing as sources when discussing the small pox virus, which derived from Veriola, and its effects.

3. Fenn argues that Jeffrey Amherst deliberately infected Indians at Fort Pitt with the support of other English Militants, including Col. Henry Bouquet. Fenn touches on the use of biological warfare without violation of the European rules of warfare in the Seven Years’ War and the Revolutionary War. The Author’s conclusion states that the Fort Pitt incident was only the beginning of intentionally infecting enemies with Veriola. With its known effectiveness, military officials used the technique in North America during conflicts in the late 18th Century.

4. Yes, Fenn proved her point with valid arguments. The author produced documentation that biological warfare was used at Fort Pitt and in at least one incident, Yorktown, during the Revolutionary War. When the Indians asked for provisions and aid following battle at Fort Pitt, William Trent wrote, “Out of our regard to them, we gave [the Indians] two Blankets and a Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect (Fenn, 4).” At Yorktown, an infantry of black, British allied fighters was destroyed by disease: “The British retreat to Yorktown in many ways echoed Lord Dunmore’s Virginia campaign five years earlier. Again, African American slaves flocked to British lines seeking freedom from their revolutionary masters. And again smallpox cut them down (Fenn, 41).”

5. This argument is very important because it reveals information and poses questions about early history of biological warfare. I believe the author is correct, and it highlights major ethical flaws in early Americans. It is now easy to understand why the Indians stood no chance in battle against colonies. The spreading of this deadly disease in such a brutal way is sickening.

 Blog Assignment #2 – Breen
1. T. H. Breen discusses the economic and political changes of mid-eighteenth century America leading up to the revolution. The growing consumer economy in America led to a political identity in which persons of all ranks participated. Following the Seven Years’ War, the British parliament imposed colonial taxes on British imports. In turn, the colonists experimented with economic discourse in attempt to achieve economic independence. The colonists’ resistance led to a sense of separation from the motherland and unity as Americans.

2. The author discusses why the Parliament chose to raise taxes and the response of the colonists. When British visitors came to America, they reported seeing a flourishing society of great wealth. In reality, colonists were simply trying to impress their visitors. Americans dressed nicely, displayed superficial glamour, and were “too untutored to display their wealth tastefully” (Breen 474). With heightened tax rates, conspirators used the press to raise awareness about the taxation without representation. Americans united, formed a political identity, and organized boycotts of British goods. Everyone felt a sense of involvement in the political movement. British-colonial tensions were heightening as the revolutionary war approached.

3.  Breen relied on many writings of the time period such as newspapers, narratives, journals, sermons, letters, essays, and pamphlets. John Dickerson’s narrative The Late Regulations gave insight on the perceived wealth of the colonies from British visitors compared to the colonies’ actual wealth. However, Breen relied most heavily on weekly newspapers, as they reached a wider audience. Breen frequently used the Boston Gazette, Boston Evening Post, South Carolina Gazette, and the Pennsylvania Chronicle.

4. In the textbook Out of Many, it is suggested that the Seven Years’ War is what ultimately brought unity and sense of identity to the colonies. “During the war many colonists began to view themselves as distinct from the British… The Seven Years’ War also strengthened a sense of intercolonial identity among the colonists” (Out of Many). Breen, on the other hand, argues that the sense of unity came when the colonies called for boycotts of British goods. All colonies joined the movement of resistance to ensure their liberty.

5. The argument was well written and well supported. The author explains that “[colonists’] extravagant dress and luxury had this fatal effect… that Europeans concluded we were a people abounding with wealth, and well able to furnish largely for defraying the national debt” (Breen 475). It is interesting that heightened taxes came from a misinterpretation of colonial wealth. Also, Breen argues that the mid eighteenth century brought unity. “Colonists who had previously not had much to do with each other came to see it a matter of common sense to respond to the disruption of their economic and political lives through specific commercial strategies such as an ever-wider boycott movement” (Breen 480). Breen methodically moved through the events following the Seven Years’ War that led the colonists toward a revolution mindset.

Blog Assignment #3 – Blondheim 

1. In “Public Sentiment is Everything”, the author, Blondheim, discusses the dilemma faced by the Lincoln administration of mobilizing a politically divided public for support for the Civil War. Lincoln needed control of public communication. The media was moving toward decentralization, in which every point of view can be heard. In time of war, the government needs to have a major say in what the public hears. Without centralized media and full support, it is near impossible to wage war.
2. Blondheim stresses the point of how the administration attempts to control the press and media without infringing on Freedom of Speech. The newspapers were the dominant medium for which news struck the public. There were many independent newspapers free of party influence. The recently created New York Associated Press NYAP revolutionized press by using a telegraphic network to combine multiple newspapers and send out a single report. Thus the NYAP served all of North America with its telegraphic news. Lincoln allied with the NYAP, sending wartime news and gaining influence over every newspaper. He also created the Government Printing Office in 1860 to report wartime news.  Lincoln was tested in May 1864 when a bogus proclamation was printed in New York Journal of Commerce and the New York World. “It implied the failure of the Union army in the fateful Virginia campaign” (Blondheim). Lincoln overreacted. He saw it as treason and called for the imprisonment of the editors and publishers of the two newspapers and the closure of their printing establishments.  He called for the shutdown of several other independent newspapers in New York. The creator of the bogus proclamation had nothing to do with the newspapers and was simply looking for economic gain, but Lincoln continued after the publishers as they are responsible for what they print. The episode showed how unstable the administration was in respect to the press.
3. The author pulls much of the information regarding Lincoln from David Herbert Donald’s biography, Lincoln. Blondheim also pulls from Newspapers, Journals, and articles for information surrounding the time period. Blondheim uses Lincoln’s proclamation to compare to the bogus proclamation of 1864.
4. With the revolution of newspapers in 1824, the American public became far more informed and engaged in politics. Politicians were forced to use the press to capture voters. “Accompanying all these changes in print communication was an invention that out sped them all: the telegraph” (Out of Many 301). With the telegraph, news was able to reach multiple newspaper presses simultaneously. The book also parallels the article on how the telegraph aided government in times of war. It came into play during the Mexican-American War, allowing for instant updates. The advances in media have enabled for information to reach the entire United States instantly. The book also touches on how Lincoln restricted liberty during time of war. He kept a close eye on people’s freedom of speech, a main topic in the article.
5. The article was well written and well structured. It hammered on how important public sentiment is during times of war. It was important for the decentralized press to be regulated without putting a burden on freedom of speech. I find the author’s last statement very thought provoking: “As news sources, communications infrastructures, and media outlets multiply promiscuously and centralized control over them becomes impossible, major total wars can no longer be waged” (Blondheim).  With all the different opinions in the vast media, Blondheim sees it impossible to wage a major war. Without universal support, war may not be possible.