Lydia

Blog Assignment #1

Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffrey Amherst

1. Elizabeth A. Fenn attempts to address the problem of the outbreak of smallpox in the 18^th century. She also addresses the issue of smallpox being used as a weapon in warfare in some cases.
2. Fenn uses multiple sources to investigate the escalating danger of smallpox. She begins with describing the case of Jeffrey Amherst, where Amherst supposedly tells the British assistants at Fort Pitt to contaminate the Indians with objects from the smallpox hospital. This is a circumstance where Fenn believes smallpox is used as a weapon in warfare. Fenn’s sources continue by explaining the risk of smallpox and how terrible it truly is. In her segment titled ‘Why Smallpox?’ she describes smallpox as “the most fearsome disease known” (Fenn, 6). She quotes various doctors, such as Dr. William Douglass of Boston and Dr. John Page who explain the extreme scares of this sickness. They explain how smallpox is unavoidable in every circumstance.
3. Fenn’s main points deal with not only the intense scare of smallpox but also the concern that smallpox was possibly spread intentionally by using biological warfare. She considers each case while she investigates it thoroughly then decides whether or not it was intentional or unintentional. It becomes clear that Fenn believes that biological warfare was purposely used in each case. As you read the article, Fenn’s conclusion seems to be that she believes biological warfare to be unjust and cruel to say the least.
4. I think Fenn proved her argument of how devastating smallpox was for everyone involved. She proved this because she used many specific and legitimate instances supporting this fact. For example, Fenn describes in depth the effects of smallpox. “The consequences varied. Besides scarring and death, they could include blindness and bone deformity” (Fenn, 7). The seriousness of smallpox becomes apparent when Fenn says, “when two men sick with smallpox turned up on a ship in Boston harbor, the town selectmen isolated them in a house marked by a red flag) (Fenn, 9). These two examples prove Fenn’s argument of how devastating smallpox was for so many people. In relation to her other argument regarding biological warfare, I don’t think she supported this argument very well. For example, Fenn brings up the point that biological warfare possibly did not happen post the Fort Pitt episode. This clearly doesn’t support her argument that all cases of smallpox were because of biological warfare.
5. I believe this answer is important as we study the history of the United States because both war and disease still exist today. This answer gives us insight into the way people handled such serious situations long ago. I also believe it is important to recognize and take note of the way people used weapons in the past in hopes that this will better prepare us for future situations such as this one.

Blog Assignment #2

Narrative of Commercial Life: Consumption, Ideology, and Community on the Eve of the American Revolution

1. T. H. Breen, the author of Narrative of Commercial Life: Consumption, Ideology, and Community on the Eve of the American Revolution, examines in detail the drastic changes which took place in America during the mid-eighteenth-century right before and leading up to the American Revolution. America transformed in so many ways, from a simplistic lifestyle to a thriving one. The Americans had to adjust to the change in both their political and economic situations during the time. Among the many modifications in America during this time, one substantial change was the new and booming political condition of America, which resulted in people of all different social “ranks” being able to actively participate. Breen also discusses the major change during the Seven Years’ War. This war led the British Parliament to no longer believe that America was poor. Britain’s numerous methods opened the Americans eyes to be able to see the British as evil. This was the beginning of the dispute between the Americans and the British, as the British became increasingly weak and began to depend on the American consumers.
2. Breen’s main points explain the disagreement between the Parliament and the colonists. “The estimates of our wealth which have been received from ignorant or prejudiced persons, are, in every calculation, grossly erroneous” (Breen 474). Britain greatly exaggerated America’s wealth. Since the British unfairly wanted the Americans poor, Parliament raised the colonist’s taxes. This angered the Americans, resulting in their unification, which was when their boycotts against the British began. As each boycott, like the Stamp Act, took place, the apprehension between the British and the Americans increased. Americans began to not want reciprocity with the British. All of these factors led up to American Revolution.
3. Breen uses many primary sources throughout his argument. One specific thing he continually used throughout his article was the newspaper. More specifically, he pulled information and quotes from the Boston Chronicle, the South-Carolina Gazette, the Pennsylvania Chronicle, New-York Mercury, and the Boston Gazette. From these newspapers, he used mostly letters and journals to support his argument. Another source Breen used were books. For example, he quotes Max Weber in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. He also uses pamphlets to support his opinion, such as Considerations Upon the Act of Parliament. Each resource Breen used supported his opinion well and gave excellent insight.
4. The textbook, Out of Many, argues that the “sense of national community” among the Americans came simply from the Seven Years’ War. This text states that this war is what initially brought out the strength in the colonists, and it gave them the power to fight for their independence from the British. Breen’s article challenges this view and addresses it from a different perspective because he states that the construction of the colonist’s “sense of national community” came solely from when the colonists formed boycotts against the British trade. All of the Americans joined the boycotts, in search of their independence and freedom.
5. This article was well-argued and very persuasive. As Breen explains throughout his article, the colonists became unified when they collectively decided to boycott and rebel against the British. “Over time, the nonimportation movement grew larger, more successful, and more democratic” (Breen 486). This quote shows support for Breen’s argument that the colonists become more successful and combined over time. The Americans had boycott after boycott, beginning with the Stamp Act in 1765-1766. “Similar protests occurred in 1768-1770 and 1774-1776” (Breen 486). Breen’s examples of boycotts that the Americans participated in give proof that the colonists’ unification began with their numerous boycotts. These not only unified the colonists, but it also was the beginning to the American’s fight for freedom. Breen’s article did not change or enhance my previous understanding of the Revolutionary Era because I knew all along that the Americans eventually turned the mess around and conquered after all.

Blog Assignment #3—Blondheim

1. In Blondheim’s article, “Public Sentiment is Everything” the author examines the public’s sentiment and the relationship with the war. The Civil War wasn’t only about the artillery and combat but also about the publics’ emotions. Although it was difficult, Abraham Lincoln knew this first hand and understood more than anyone the need to please the public sentiment. Lincoln knew whoever had the positive attitude in the war would have a deep advantage over the opposition and it was nearly impossible to defeat public sentiment.
2. The article has many points that jump out as key ways the public was influenced during the Civil War. Freedom of speech was one of the main issues the war was fought over; Lincoln knew in order to have effect management of the war he would need to have control over the public communications. The newspaper was a step toward controlling the public affairs and helped gain recognition by the public. The newspapers, which were once ran by parties, now ran independently and gave people news accurately and quicker than before. The public valued the independent news greatly and circulation increased. The Lincoln administration had a great relationship with the NYAP whom controlled the wartime news, which gave Lincoln power with the press. The bogus proclamation affair of May 1894, the New York Journal of Commerce published a fake letter from president Lincoln, which turned all “depressed and fearful”. After investigation it was sought that the NYAP copy was a fraud. Beginning on May 18, 1894 all independent New York City newspaper outlets were closed and many publishers taken to jail. It seemed to be a harsh thing Lincoln did, but it was explained by Lincoln that the editors were legally liable for the printings in the paper. The real proclamation “draft” was written just hours before the bogus proclamation, though Lincoln never officially issued it. Dix, the investigator, had the confessed author Joseph Howard. Villard was later said to have been receiving information from the agency.
3. The most important primary source Blondheim used in the article was a draft proclamation hand written by Abraham Lincoln on May 17, 1864. Lincoln and his administration scrambled just two days later to respond to the previous fake proclamation made in New York on May 18^th.
4. The article addresses the enormous communications advances that transformed the politics, culture, economy and government as technology disrupted and changed the view the American public had on the government. The press made it easier and quicker to get news to the people, which they relied on tremendously. “A print revolution helped to democratize politics by spreading word far beyond the nation’s cities about the parades, protests, and celebrations that became a basic part of popular democracy” (Out of Many 284-285). As shown in this quotation, the newspaper made it simpler for the government to capture the sentiment of the public. On the other hand, unreliable newspaper outlets were passing out false information people thought was true.
5. I found Blondheim’s argument both well argued and persuasive. His “the bogus proclamation affair demonstrated how the entire wartime system public communications could be undermined” (Blondheim 897). This proves it was the most terrible time for the parties’ communication tactic to blow up before their eyes, and the media does have effect over the public sentiment. The final sentence sums up the optimistic view “as news sources, communications infrastructures, and media outlets multiply promiscuously and centralized control over them becomes impossible, major total wars can no longed be waged”. After reading this article, I now understand more the communication issues behind the Civil War. I never thought the influence of mass media could affect people as much as it did, but after reading the article it broadens my view of the power of media. I believe what Blondheim meant by the “decentralized communications environment” was the many tools and different development techniques that will be used in the third millennium.